Lesson 1 Introduction to Land Drainage
1.1 What is Drainage?
Irrigation and drainage
constitutes a subset of water resources system and are crucial for human
survival Land drainage, or the combination of irrigation and land drainage, is
one of the most important input factors to maintain or improve agricultural
productivity. To enlarge the present cultivated area, more land must be
reclaimed than the land that is lost due to urban/industrial development, roads
and land degradation. However, in some areas, land is a limiting resource,
whereas in other areas, agriculture cannot expand at the cost of nature.
constitutes a subset of water resources system and are crucial for human
survival Land drainage, or the combination of irrigation and land drainage, is
one of the most important input factors to maintain or improve agricultural
productivity. To enlarge the present cultivated area, more land must be
reclaimed than the land that is lost due to urban/industrial development, roads
and land degradation. However, in some areas, land is a limiting resource,
whereas in other areas, agriculture cannot expand at the cost of nature.
Drainage is a reverse
process of irrigation. It is broadly defined as the removal (disposal) of
excess water from a land (usually agricultural land). The terms ‘drainage’,
‘land drainage’, ‘agricultural drainage’ and ‘field drainage’
are used as synonyms in practice. Since drainage (land drainage) is necessary
not only for the removal of excess surface water or groundwater but also for
removing salts from the soil, a precise definition of drainage has been given
by the constitution of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
(ICID, 1979). According to ICID (1979), land drainage is defined as follows:
process of irrigation. It is broadly defined as the removal (disposal) of
excess water from a land (usually agricultural land). The terms ‘drainage’,
‘land drainage’, ‘agricultural drainage’ and ‘field drainage’
are used as synonyms in practice. Since drainage (land drainage) is necessary
not only for the removal of excess surface water or groundwater but also for
removing salts from the soil, a precise definition of drainage has been given
by the constitution of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
(ICID, 1979). According to ICID (1979), land drainage is defined as follows:
“Land drainage is the
removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to enhance crop
growth, including the removal of soluble salts from the soil”.
removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to enhance crop
growth, including the removal of soluble salts from the soil”.
The above definition of
land drainage (or drainage) is well known and is used worldwide.
land drainage (or drainage) is well known and is used worldwide.
1.2 Objectives of
Drainage
Drainage
Plant roots require a
favorable environment to extract water and nutrient solutions to meet the plant’s
requirement. For most crops, soil moisture ranging from field capacity to 50%
of the field capacity in the root zone is considered ideal. Only a few crops
such as rice and jute need standing water on the field at certain stages of
their growth. Chemically, a neutral and non-saline soil is ideal for proper
growth and yield of most food crops. Excess water and/or high salt
concentration in the root zone or at the land surface do not allow the plant
roots to function normally. As a result, the plant growth and yield are
adversely affected. In the extreme cases of waterlogging and salinity, the
seeds may not germinate and the plants may wilt permanently. The result is a
loss of agricultural production. Land drainage, as a tool to manage excess
surface water and groundwater levels, plays an important role in maintaining
and improving crop yields:
favorable environment to extract water and nutrient solutions to meet the plant’s
requirement. For most crops, soil moisture ranging from field capacity to 50%
of the field capacity in the root zone is considered ideal. Only a few crops
such as rice and jute need standing water on the field at certain stages of
their growth. Chemically, a neutral and non-saline soil is ideal for proper
growth and yield of most food crops. Excess water and/or high salt
concentration in the root zone or at the land surface do not allow the plant
roots to function normally. As a result, the plant growth and yield are
adversely affected. In the extreme cases of waterlogging and salinity, the
seeds may not germinate and the plants may wilt permanently. The result is a
loss of agricultural production. Land drainage, as a tool to manage excess
surface water and groundwater levels, plays an important role in maintaining
and improving crop yields:
· Drainage prevents a decrease in the productivity
of arable land due to rising water tables and the accumulation of salts in the
root zone.
of arable land due to rising water tables and the accumulation of salts in the
root zone.
· Drainage is the only way to reclaim the land
which is not cultivated due to waterlogging and salinity problems.
which is not cultivated due to waterlogging and salinity problems.
Agricultural land
drainage in essence is both a preventive and a curative measure for the
prevention of physical and chemical degradation of soils and for the
reclamation of already degraded lands. Thus, drainage of agricultural lands is
an effective technique to maintain a sustainable agricultural system as well as
to avoid environmental damage.
drainage in essence is both a preventive and a curative measure for the
prevention of physical and chemical degradation of soils and for the
reclamation of already degraded lands. Thus, drainage of agricultural lands is
an effective technique to maintain a sustainable agricultural system as well as
to avoid environmental damage.
1.3 Drainage
Problems in India
Problems in India
Waterlogging and salt
accumulation are major constraints to sustainable agricultural production in
most countries of the world, especially in developing countries (including
India). In India, drainage problem is acute in the states of Punjab and
Haryana, while it also prevails in the command areas of other states. Broadly
speaking, waterlogging is a situation of an agricultural land when the root
zone gets saturated. Such a condition restricts normal air circulation, reduces
the oxygen level and increases carbon dioxide level in the root zone. On the other
hand, salt affected soils are those in which the concentration of salts in the
root zone adversely affects the normal root activity. Both the waterlogging and
salt affected soils produce detrimental effects on crop growth and yield as
well as cause environmental degradation. Waterlogging and salinity of
agricultural lands are caused due to natural causes or artificial causes (i.e.,
human interventions). Important natural causes are high rainfall during the
rainy season, unfavourable topography, backwater entry from rivers, seawater
intrusion, high evaporation during long dry periods, and the salts present in
the soil. On the contrary, important human factors are unscientific management
of land and irrigation water, use of poor-quality water for irrigation,
adoption of unscientific and non-sustainable cropping pattern, and obstruction
of natural outlets because of urbanization and construction of highways and
railways.
accumulation are major constraints to sustainable agricultural production in
most countries of the world, especially in developing countries (including
India). In India, drainage problem is acute in the states of Punjab and
Haryana, while it also prevails in the command areas of other states. Broadly
speaking, waterlogging is a situation of an agricultural land when the root
zone gets saturated. Such a condition restricts normal air circulation, reduces
the oxygen level and increases carbon dioxide level in the root zone. On the other
hand, salt affected soils are those in which the concentration of salts in the
root zone adversely affects the normal root activity. Both the waterlogging and
salt affected soils produce detrimental effects on crop growth and yield as
well as cause environmental degradation. Waterlogging and salinity of
agricultural lands are caused due to natural causes or artificial causes (i.e.,
human interventions). Important natural causes are high rainfall during the
rainy season, unfavourable topography, backwater entry from rivers, seawater
intrusion, high evaporation during long dry periods, and the salts present in
the soil. On the contrary, important human factors are unscientific management
of land and irrigation water, use of poor-quality water for irrigation,
adoption of unscientific and non-sustainable cropping pattern, and obstruction
of natural outlets because of urbanization and construction of highways and
railways.
1.3.1 Definition,
Classification and Impact of Waterlogging
Classification and Impact of Waterlogging
(1) What is
Waterlogging?
Waterlogging?
Generally, the term ‘waterlogging’
refers to the condition of a land (soil) in which the water table comes within
or very near the root zone due to which crop yields decrease below the normal
yield or the land cannot be used for cultivation. The soil becomes waterlogged
when the water fills up all the pore space present in the soil profile, and it
remains waterlogged when drainage facility is inadequate or absent. This type
of waterlogging is quite common in irrigated agricultural lands and is known as
‘subsurface waterlogging’ or simply ‘waterlogging’. According to
FAO (FAO, 1973), waterlogged areas are those where soils are temporarily
saturated or where the water table is too shallow such that capillary rise of
groundwater encroaches upon the root zone and may even reach the soil surface.
Moreover, waterlogging also occurs when water is stagnant on the land surface
for considerable time due to absence of a proper outlet and insignificant
infiltration. This type of waterlogging is known as ‘surface waterlogging’.
refers to the condition of a land (soil) in which the water table comes within
or very near the root zone due to which crop yields decrease below the normal
yield or the land cannot be used for cultivation. The soil becomes waterlogged
when the water fills up all the pore space present in the soil profile, and it
remains waterlogged when drainage facility is inadequate or absent. This type
of waterlogging is quite common in irrigated agricultural lands and is known as
‘subsurface waterlogging’ or simply ‘waterlogging’. According to
FAO (FAO, 1973), waterlogged areas are those where soils are temporarily
saturated or where the water table is too shallow such that capillary rise of
groundwater encroaches upon the root zone and may even reach the soil surface.
Moreover, waterlogging also occurs when water is stagnant on the land surface
for considerable time due to absence of a proper outlet and insignificant
infiltration. This type of waterlogging is known as ‘surface waterlogging’.
(2) Classification of
Waterlogging
Waterlogging
The working group on
problem identification in Irrigated Areas, constituted by the Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India (MOWR, 1991) adopted the following norms for the
identification of waterlogged areas:
problem identification in Irrigated Areas, constituted by the Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India (MOWR, 1991) adopted the following norms for the
identification of waterlogged areas:
(i) Waterlogged
Area: Water table within
2 m from the land surface.
Area: Water table within
2 m from the land surface.
(ii) Potential
Area for Waterlogging: Water
table between 2-3 m from the land surface.
Area for Waterlogging: Water
table between 2-3 m from the land surface.
(iii) Safe
Area: Water table below 3 m
from the land surface.
Area: Water table below 3 m
from the land surface.
The above categorization
does not consider the time of the year or type cropping season in relation to
the water table depths and runoff accumulation over the crop land. Crops vary
greatly in their rooting depth and susceptibility to waterlogging. The dry
season crops are more susceptibility to waterlogging than the wet season crops.
Therefore, it will be useful if the categorization of waterlogged areas is
linked with the crop season or time of the year. The common approaches to
express the water table depth from the soil surface are: (a) pre-monsoon
(April/May) depth to water table, (b) post-monsoon (October/November) depth to
water table, (c) seasonal (monsoon/winter/summer) or annual average depth to
water table, and (d) sum of the number of days when water table is shallower
than a specified depth. Out of these four approaches, the first two are the
simplest approaches to express the water table depth from the soil surface.
does not consider the time of the year or type cropping season in relation to
the water table depths and runoff accumulation over the crop land. Crops vary
greatly in their rooting depth and susceptibility to waterlogging. The dry
season crops are more susceptibility to waterlogging than the wet season crops.
Therefore, it will be useful if the categorization of waterlogged areas is
linked with the crop season or time of the year. The common approaches to
express the water table depth from the soil surface are: (a) pre-monsoon
(April/May) depth to water table, (b) post-monsoon (October/November) depth to
water table, (c) seasonal (monsoon/winter/summer) or annual average depth to
water table, and (d) sum of the number of days when water table is shallower
than a specified depth. Out of these four approaches, the first two are the
simplest approaches to express the water table depth from the soil surface.
A deep water table at
pre-monsoon reduces the chances of soil salinization and ensures successful
crop production during monsoon (kharif) season. A deep water table in the
post-monsoon period helps maintaining timeliness of field operations for the
winter (rabi) season crops. Keeping these facts in view, the following norms
are suggested for the classification of different categories of waterlogged
areas in India and other South Asian countries (Bhattacharya and Michael,
2003):
pre-monsoon reduces the chances of soil salinization and ensures successful
crop production during monsoon (kharif) season. A deep water table in the
post-monsoon period helps maintaining timeliness of field operations for the
winter (rabi) season crops. Keeping these facts in view, the following norms
are suggested for the classification of different categories of waterlogged
areas in India and other South Asian countries (Bhattacharya and Michael,
2003):
(i) Waterlogged
Area: Water table is
within 2 m from soil surface during pre-monsoon (April/May) or water table is
within 1 m from soil surface during post-monsoon (October/November).
Area: Water table is
within 2 m from soil surface during pre-monsoon (April/May) or water table is
within 1 m from soil surface during post-monsoon (October/November).
(ii) Critical Area
for Waterlogging: When the water
table is between 2 and 3 m from the soil surface during pre-monsoon and/or
between 1 and 2 m during post-monsoon, it is considered as critical. In a
critical area, waterlogging condition may develop within a short period of time
if suitable measures are not adopted. Such measures are location specific and
may comprise providing a drainage system, land development and scientific
management of irrigation water.
for Waterlogging: When the water
table is between 2 and 3 m from the soil surface during pre-monsoon and/or
between 1 and 2 m during post-monsoon, it is considered as critical. In a
critical area, waterlogging condition may develop within a short period of time
if suitable measures are not adopted. Such measures are location specific and
may comprise providing a drainage system, land development and scientific
management of irrigation water.
(iii) Potential
Area for Waterlogging: In
monsoon Asia, irrigated areas with water table between 3 and 5 m during
pre-monsoon may be considered as potential areas for waterlogging.
Area for Waterlogging: In
monsoon Asia, irrigated areas with water table between 3 and 5 m during
pre-monsoon may be considered as potential areas for waterlogging.
(3) Impacts of
Waterlogging
Waterlogging
The physical effects of
waterlogging are: (i) lack of aeration in the root zone, (ii) difficulty in
soil workability, and (iii) deterioration of soil structure. If the
waterlogging prolongs for considerable time, it produces its chemical effect
which is known as soil salinization. Both waterlogging and soil salinity
adversely affect the growth and yield of crops (Figs. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). The
extent of crop damage depends upon the magnitude, duration and frequency of the
waterlogged condition and the degree of soil salinity.
waterlogging are: (i) lack of aeration in the root zone, (ii) difficulty in
soil workability, and (iii) deterioration of soil structure. If the
waterlogging prolongs for considerable time, it produces its chemical effect
which is known as soil salinization. Both waterlogging and soil salinity
adversely affect the growth and yield of crops (Figs. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). The
extent of crop damage depends upon the magnitude, duration and frequency of the
waterlogged condition and the degree of soil salinity.
Fig. 1.2. General relationship between crop yield and constant
water table depth during growing season in
water table depth during growing season in
the Netherlands. (Source: Schwab et al., 2005)
Fig. 1.3. Influence of water table depth onnitrogen supplied by the soil. (Source: Schwab et al., 2005)
1.3.2 Salt Build-up in
Soils
Soils
Soluble salts in the
parent rocks which have weathered to form soil, seawater intrusion and high
evaporation are the major natural causes for the salinisation of agricultural
lands. Under a monsoon climate much of the accumulated salts are washed or
leached out during the rainy season. However, high evaporation during the
remaining dry and hot months in the year draws up the saline groundwater at
shallow depths towards the land surface. The salts are left behind after the
water evaporates (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, important anthropogenic causes for
salinity development are the use of poor quality water for irrigation and the
excess application of irrigation water.
parent rocks which have weathered to form soil, seawater intrusion and high
evaporation are the major natural causes for the salinisation of agricultural
lands. Under a monsoon climate much of the accumulated salts are washed or
leached out during the rainy season. However, high evaporation during the
remaining dry and hot months in the year draws up the saline groundwater at
shallow depths towards the land surface. The salts are left behind after the
water evaporates (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, important anthropogenic causes for
salinity development are the use of poor quality water for irrigation and the
excess application of irrigation water.
Salt problem is a major
cause of decreasing agricultural production in many of the irrigated areas.
Irrigation with water of low salinity but with dominant anion, and migration of
sodic salts in arid climate promote salinity. The main causes of soil salinity
and sodicity (alkalinity) are: (i) irrigation mismanagement; (ii) poor land
leveling; (iii) leaving land fallow during dry periods especially in regions of
shallow water table; (iv) improper use of heavy machinery resulting in soil
compaction; (v) leaching without adequate drainage, and (vi) adoption of
improper cropping patterns and crop rotations. In irrigated agriculture,
scientific management of water and land is the key to avoid waterlogging and
salt problems.
cause of decreasing agricultural production in many of the irrigated areas.
Irrigation with water of low salinity but with dominant anion, and migration of
sodic salts in arid climate promote salinity. The main causes of soil salinity
and sodicity (alkalinity) are: (i) irrigation mismanagement; (ii) poor land
leveling; (iii) leaving land fallow during dry periods especially in regions of
shallow water table; (iv) improper use of heavy machinery resulting in soil
compaction; (v) leaching without adequate drainage, and (vi) adoption of
improper cropping patterns and crop rotations. In irrigated agriculture,
scientific management of water and land is the key to avoid waterlogging and
salt problems.
Fig. 1.4. Surface salt due to evaporation from shallow and saline
groundwater (Najafgarh Block of Delhi).
groundwater (Najafgarh Block of Delhi).
(Source: Bhattacharya and Michael, 2003)
Salinity is a major
problem in many non-irrigated areas also where cropping is based on limited
rainfall. In rainfed agriculture, surface drainage is required to prevent
waterlogging and flooding of low lands which lead to soil salinity hazards.
Salinity in dryland areas has been a threat to land and water resources in many
parts of the world. In rainfed agricultural lands of coastal areas, seawater
intrusion is the main cause of salinization during dry periods. In semi-arid
areas of the world, the scarcity and the variability of rainfall and high
potential evapotranspiration affect the water and salt balance in the soil. Low
humidity, high temperature, and high wind velocity induce upward movement of
soil solution resulting in a high concentration of salts at the land surface
and within the root zone. In arid regions, various types of Sodium, Magnesium
and Calcium salts are concentrated mainly in Chloride and Sulphate forms. In
less arid regions, Sodium salts in the Carbonate and Bicarbonate forms enhance
the formation of sodic soils due to the adsorption of Sodium in the soil
exchange complex.
problem in many non-irrigated areas also where cropping is based on limited
rainfall. In rainfed agriculture, surface drainage is required to prevent
waterlogging and flooding of low lands which lead to soil salinity hazards.
Salinity in dryland areas has been a threat to land and water resources in many
parts of the world. In rainfed agricultural lands of coastal areas, seawater
intrusion is the main cause of salinization during dry periods. In semi-arid
areas of the world, the scarcity and the variability of rainfall and high
potential evapotranspiration affect the water and salt balance in the soil. Low
humidity, high temperature, and high wind velocity induce upward movement of
soil solution resulting in a high concentration of salts at the land surface
and within the root zone. In arid regions, various types of Sodium, Magnesium
and Calcium salts are concentrated mainly in Chloride and Sulphate forms. In
less arid regions, Sodium salts in the Carbonate and Bicarbonate forms enhance
the formation of sodic soils due to the adsorption of Sodium in the soil
exchange complex.
Table 1.1 presents approximate
information on the waterlogged and salt affected areas in some of the states of
India. In this table, waterlogged areas include within and outside the
irrigated regions as well as coastal saline lands.
information on the waterlogged and salt affected areas in some of the states of
India. In this table, waterlogged areas include within and outside the
irrigated regions as well as coastal saline lands.
Table 1.1. Geographical, waterlogged and salt affected areas of
some states in India (Bhattacharya and Michael, 2003)
some states in India (Bhattacharya and Michael, 2003)
|
Sl. No.
|
State
|
Geographical Area (Mha)
|
Waterlogged Area (Mha)
|
Salt Affected Area (Mha)
|
|
1
|
Andhra Pradesh
|
27.44
|
0.339
|
0.813
|
|
2
|
Bihar
|
17.40
|
0.363
|
0.400
|
|
3
|
Gujarat
|
19.60
|
0.484
|
0.455
|
|
4
|
Haryana
|
4.22
|
0.275
|
0.455
|
|
5
|
Karnataka
|
19.20
|
0.036
|
0.404
|
|
6
|
Kerala
|
3.89
|
0.012
|
0.026
|
|
7
|
Madhya Pradesh
|
44.20
|
0.057
|
0.242
|
|
8
|
Maharastra
|
30.75
|
0.111
|
0.535
|
|
9
|
Orissa
|
15.54
|
0.196
|
0.400
|
|
10
|
Punjab
|
5.04
|
0.199
|
0.520
|
|
11
|
Rajasthan
|
28.79
|
0.348
|
1.122
|
|
12
|
Tamil Nadu
|
12.96
|
0.128
|
0.340
|
|
13
|
Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal
|
29.40
|
1.980
|
1.295
|
1.3.3 Drainage Problems
in Rainfed Areas
in Rainfed Areas
The progress of the net
sown area and its break-up into unirrigated and irrigated areas in India is
shown in Fig. 1.5 (FAI, 1998). Although the unirrigated area has decreased with
increasing irrigation development, about 80 Mha of the cropped land is still
unirrigated (rainfed). As the pace of irrigation development has slowed down in
recent years, much of the cultivated area may remain unirrigated in the future.
Thus, it is irrigation rather than drainage which should be of concern for
rainfed areas. However, due to the diversity of climate and soil, even rainfed
areas experience excess water during monsoon season and excess salts during dry
season (non-monsoon season). For example, land inundation during the monsoon
season and high soil salinity during the dry season prevent cultivation in the
coastal areas of Medinipur District, West Bengal. Vast flat lands in
south-western Haryana and south-western Punjab, despite a low annual rainfall,
get waterlogged due to sudden rains and lack of drainage to clear out the
runoff fast. Lands in the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) are
uncultivable during monsoon due to excess water. Thus, drainage is relevant
even in the unirrigated areas to ensure crop production.
sown area and its break-up into unirrigated and irrigated areas in India is
shown in Fig. 1.5 (FAI, 1998). Although the unirrigated area has decreased with
increasing irrigation development, about 80 Mha of the cropped land is still
unirrigated (rainfed). As the pace of irrigation development has slowed down in
recent years, much of the cultivated area may remain unirrigated in the future.
Thus, it is irrigation rather than drainage which should be of concern for
rainfed areas. However, due to the diversity of climate and soil, even rainfed
areas experience excess water during monsoon season and excess salts during dry
season (non-monsoon season). For example, land inundation during the monsoon
season and high soil salinity during the dry season prevent cultivation in the
coastal areas of Medinipur District, West Bengal. Vast flat lands in
south-western Haryana and south-western Punjab, despite a low annual rainfall,
get waterlogged due to sudden rains and lack of drainage to clear out the
runoff fast. Lands in the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) are
uncultivable during monsoon due to excess water. Thus, drainage is relevant
even in the unirrigated areas to ensure crop production.
Fig. 1.5. Progressive development of net sown, irrigated and
rainfed areas in India during 1950-2000
rainfed areas in India during 1950-2000
(the last values are extrapolated).(Source: FAI, 1998)
1.3.4 Technical Limitations and Current
Status of Land Drainage
Status of Land Drainage
Making major changes in
the physical, morphological, and chemical properties of the land and water
resources are infeasible. Equally infeasible is to change the climate of a
region. However, the occurrence of waterlogging and salinity problems can be
substantially reduced when proper attention is given to the factors listed
above. The man-made causes, which are mainly concerned with the development and
use of land and water resources, are theoretically easier to prevent and even
to rectify. The rectification is, however, expensive, and the prevention has
proved to be elusive up to now. Therefore, we are seriously concerned about the
adverse impacts of waterlogging and salinity on agricultural production. Also,
agriculture sector needs a serious attention because of the fact that while
land and the water resources are limited in quantity and degradable, human
population is gradually increasing in most Asian and African countries. This
necessitates more agricultural productivity per unit of land and water, which
will be possible only if further deterioration of land and water resources is
avoided or minimized, degraded lands are reclaimed and these two vital
resources are utilized judiciously.
the physical, morphological, and chemical properties of the land and water
resources are infeasible. Equally infeasible is to change the climate of a
region. However, the occurrence of waterlogging and salinity problems can be
substantially reduced when proper attention is given to the factors listed
above. The man-made causes, which are mainly concerned with the development and
use of land and water resources, are theoretically easier to prevent and even
to rectify. The rectification is, however, expensive, and the prevention has
proved to be elusive up to now. Therefore, we are seriously concerned about the
adverse impacts of waterlogging and salinity on agricultural production. Also,
agriculture sector needs a serious attention because of the fact that while
land and the water resources are limited in quantity and degradable, human
population is gradually increasing in most Asian and African countries. This
necessitates more agricultural productivity per unit of land and water, which
will be possible only if further deterioration of land and water resources is
avoided or minimized, degraded lands are reclaimed and these two vital
resources are utilized judiciously.
Among the various
activities in the agricultural production system, drainage is perhaps the most
neglected in India as well as in many other developing countries. The misuse of
irrigation water is slowly but inevitably leads to drainage problems. Of great
relevance in the context is the history of land and groundwater degradation due
to their unscientific use in different parts of the world. In 1876, the Reh
Commission had cautioned against undermining the importance of agricultural
drainage in the irrigated areas of India. According to (Bower and Hufschmidt,
1984), irrigation and drainage, as practiced in the developing countries, is
functionally inefficient, technology primitive, economically unremunerative and
environmentally degrading. Also, in the past, there have been an unspecified
number of recommendations of a large number of seminars and symposia, highlighting
the necessity of land drainage in enhancing and sustaining agricultural
production. Most recently, there are the crisp observations of the Standing
Committee of Agriculture (Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1996) of the 11th Lok
Sabha of India, on the undesirable neglect of the agricultural drainage in the
irrigated areas of India. Thus, modernization of irrigation and drainage is
urgently needed in India as well as in many other developing countries across
the world.
activities in the agricultural production system, drainage is perhaps the most
neglected in India as well as in many other developing countries. The misuse of
irrigation water is slowly but inevitably leads to drainage problems. Of great
relevance in the context is the history of land and groundwater degradation due
to their unscientific use in different parts of the world. In 1876, the Reh
Commission had cautioned against undermining the importance of agricultural
drainage in the irrigated areas of India. According to (Bower and Hufschmidt,
1984), irrigation and drainage, as practiced in the developing countries, is
functionally inefficient, technology primitive, economically unremunerative and
environmentally degrading. Also, in the past, there have been an unspecified
number of recommendations of a large number of seminars and symposia, highlighting
the necessity of land drainage in enhancing and sustaining agricultural
production. Most recently, there are the crisp observations of the Standing
Committee of Agriculture (Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1996) of the 11th Lok
Sabha of India, on the undesirable neglect of the agricultural drainage in the
irrigated areas of India. Thus, modernization of irrigation and drainage is
urgently needed in India as well as in many other developing countries across
the world.
References
Bhattacharya, A.K. and
Michael, A.M. (2003). Land Drainage: Principles, Methods and Applications.
Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Michael, A.M. (2003). Land Drainage: Principles, Methods and Applications.
Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Bower, B.T. and
Husfschmidt, M.M. (1984). A conceptual framework fro analysis of water
resources management in Asia. Natural Resources Forum, 8(1): 343-356.
Husfschmidt, M.M. (1984). A conceptual framework fro analysis of water
resources management in Asia. Natural Resources Forum, 8(1): 343-356.
FAI (1998). Fertilizer
Statistics. The Fertilizer Association of India (FAI), New Delhi, India.
Statistics. The Fertilizer Association of India (FAI), New Delhi, India.
FAO (1973). Drainage of
Salty Soils. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 16, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Salty Soils. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 16, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
ICID (1979). Amendments
to the Constitution, Agenda of the International Council Meeting at Rabat.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Morocco, ICID, New
Delhi, India, pp. A-156-163.
to the Constitution, Agenda of the International Council Meeting at Rabat.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Morocco, ICID, New
Delhi, India, pp. A-156-163.
Lok Sabha Secretariat
(1996). Fourth Report of the Standing Committee on Agriculture of the 11th Lok
Sabha. New Delhi, India.
(1996). Fourth Report of the Standing Committee on Agriculture of the 11th Lok
Sabha. New Delhi, India.
MOWR. (1991). Report of
the Working Group on Problem Identification in Irrigated Areas with Suggested
Remedial Measures. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), Government of India, New
Delhi.
the Working Group on Problem Identification in Irrigated Areas with Suggested
Remedial Measures. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), Government of India, New
Delhi.
Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier,
D.D., Elliot, W.J. and Frevert, R.K. (2005). Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering. Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
D.D., Elliot, W.J. and Frevert, R.K. (2005). Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering. Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
Suggested Readings
Bhattacharya, A.K. and
Michael, A.M. (2003). Land Drainage: Principles, Methods and Applications.
Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Michael, A.M. (2003). Land Drainage: Principles, Methods and Applications.
Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Michael, A.M. and Ojha,
T.P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural Engineering. Volume II, M/s Jain
Brothers, New Delhi, India.
T.P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural Engineering. Volume II, M/s Jain
Brothers, New Delhi, India.
Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier,
D.D., Elliot, W.J. and Frevert, R.K. (2005). Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering. Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
D.D., Elliot, W.J. and Frevert, R.K. (2005). Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering. Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
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